Globalisation Increasing Economic Inequality Economics Essay

Globalisation Increasing Economic Inequality Economics Essay Globalisation has been integral in the way the world is shaped today; politically, culturally, and especially, economically and technologically. It can be described as the process in which the nations of the world have become more connected, and as McGrew (1992) expresses, the effects of changes in one country become felt around the whole world. Often this interconnectivity is beneficial, as countries experience growth due to sharing advances in technology and expanding markets. However, globalisation does not benefit all equally. There is also the ugly side of globalisation; the exploitation of developing countries, the monopolisation of industries by giant corporations, and the effects of weak policy on a nation. While the idea of globalisation seems to embody ideals such as progress and development, it is not ideal as it currently stands, and the gap between the developed and developing world will not be closed if the paradigm does not change. Globalisation has affected the worlds economies to the degree that the current situation can be described as a global market where every entity is forced to compete on the same stage. This obviously disadvantages the smaller players in the world market, especially the independent manufacturers and producers, as they compete with multinational corporations. This is further compounded in developing nations where the systems that are in place are not as developed as in advanced nations. There are systems currently in place to counteract the monopolisation of dominant corporations such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and other countries have their own laws concerning the matter. However, many nations are being overrun by private monopolisation and find it difficult to thwart the power of dominant firms. The interest of private companies to establish their business in these developing nations brings the ideals of anti-competition; which are formed by a combination of globalisation and corruption. In Latin-America there was a study conducted by Clarke et al., (2005), stating that there was 28.7% monopolisation and abuse of dominance and 40% cartelisation. In retrospect, anti-competitive acts are still very high and developing nations may experience a political breakdown or failed state, due to the lack of good governance to provide opportunities for a competitive market, lack of purchasing power and a decreasing labour force. Countries like China and India which have strong monetary ties have become promising leaders in the global economy but they have left the poorer countries unable to compete on the same scale, snowballing the economic divide and limiting foreign direct investment. Some argue that the lack of western protection trade policies has assisted the position in which less developed countries find themselves. The influence of the USA on the world economy is the most obvious we hear about consumer taste being homogeni sed (Ravallion, 2004) to American tastes around the world, which can be demonstrated by the popularity of American brands like Apple and McDonalds; brands that dominate their respective markets on a global scale. Hence, while globalisation allows products to become more accessible by allowing consumers to exercise a freedom of choice, those companies who do not have the resources or systems in place to compete on the global stage are severely limited to the local market and hence are being left-behind. Another consequence of globalisation is that technology and travel is becoming cheaper and faster and it has become increasingly easy for one to interact with another person across vast distances. Distance is less of a problem than it was two hundred years ago and has fundamentally changed the economic system and ideals in positive and negative ways, bringing on a world void of boundaries (Ohmae, 1992). Today we can make a transaction with someone anywhere in the world due to the development of technology that aide in communication and advancement of transportation spreading the free-market around the world. However access to technology around the world is unequal. A large number of the populations in third world countries, such as in Africa, South East-Asia and South America, are impoverished in the information technology age. Although globalisation has the potential to spread technology, a digital divide exists due to the rapid pace at which technology is being developed. While Afr ica contains 15.2% (Population Reference Bureau, 2012) of the worlds population it only contains 2.0% of the worlds telephone mainlines and approximately 90% of internet host computers are concentrated in countries with high gross national income (The World Bank, 2000). Totero and Braun (2006) discuss that information technology has been found to be powerful tools in yielding income generation, enfranchisement and increase in productivity. Less developed countries are at a disadvantage because they may miss opportunities to create market prospects and enhance their countrys economic situation through better connectivity and staying competitive. For example, during tsarist Russia between 1881 and 1913, Minister of Finance Sergei Witte believed that for Russia to modernise they would have to follow in the footsteps of western societies to procreate their own industrial revolution. One of his achievements was the Trans-Siberian Railway, which became a symbol of Russian enterprise. Howe ver, the Russo-Japanese War showed that due to the limitations of having a one-way railway line meant that inadequate provisions and reinforcements could not reach the front in time. Japan on the other hand had rapidly modernised along western lines and had encompassed better technology allowing them to win the war (Lynch, 2005). Overcoming the difference between the development of countries for the privileged and non-privileged will be a crucial challenge to rectify in the future. It hasnt just been technology that has affected the extent that globalisation has had an effect on economies. Governments have also played a major role on the extent of globalisation, mainly by removing the barriers that stop it from happening, which is a reflection of the ideals of neo-liberalism, such as privatisation and deregulation, which promotes globalisation. Privatisation is good news for the whole distribution of income earners due to the increase of access to services such as electricity and water. Before privatisation came about, access to services was limited due to the lack of competition resulting in higher prices. However, in small economies that have limited domestic competition and have big governments, larger companies who hold core market values under privatisation may not be able to tackle the pressure of international competition and may lose the benefits of privatisation, with their cash flow essentially being locked into investments. In Latin American countrie s such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and other Caribbean countries, less than half of those nations championed privatisation as a heralding benefit. Political risks that arose in Mexico in the 90s, due to political turmoil, had bank owners and debtors trying to rescue the economic status. Privatisation in this case did not lighten inequality of income or privileges; rather it fixed the country into trying to alleviate the stress of the previous regime (Castaà ±eda Sabido, n.d.). Hence, privatisation is a viable prospect for some countries that could see benefits due to an increase in market competition, however it must be supported with strong institutions which support market transparency, and have freedom from political interventions. If these crucial supports are not established, privatisation may prove to only assist in furthering the gap of the economic statuses between nations. Globalisation produces an unequal distribution across different levels of income. This arises from the constraints of ineffective trade policy resulting in income declination for those in absolute poverty. A study on trade outcomes of the labour market and trade reform was discussed by Harrison (2007) examining reductions in tariffs in Mexico during the 80s and 90s. The results revealed a high rate of poverty was linked to the increase in import competition, which in turn increased the possibility of unemployment. Furthermore, external competition often drives prices down. This was illustrated in the study with an increase in corn imports resulting in cheaper Mexican corn. This did not benefit the Mexican farmers whose livelihoods depended on the real income provided by their crops. On the other side of the coin, the study also concluded that an increase in export growth resulted in a rise in minimum wage and a reduction of informal sector employment due to the increase of opportunit ies for companies to expand. Moreover, a burgeoning market provides more incentive for investors to invest in the local market. Thus, it becomes clear that effective trade policy is an essential key to paving the road towards a successful domestic market and thus alleviating some of the causes of poverty within a nation. The divide between the polarities of the economic spectrum is still increasing. The capability for multinational cohesion to enhance the economies and markets of nations, especially poorer nations is still constrained by the prerequisites of facilitating the adoption of globalisation. While larger nations and governments within nations have set policies and reforms to counteract the ugly side of globalisation there is still the prospect of hungry organisations that want to reap monetary gains indifferently. More competitive and transparent nations will gain more access to assets such as technology and useful forms of tools that will enhance the reaches of their own economic market but not necessarily help poorer nations with bettering their market outreach. Political and social tension is the result as poorer nations undergo challenging transitions to try and catch-up and reverse the worsening of economic inequality. Better protection is needed by making the market non-discriminatory by understanding negative spill over, in that, domestic finance and activity is sometimes worsened by the activity of offshore markets. Without this understanding, from both sides, the benefits of a more united and global market would undermine the development of the world.

Money Makes the Man in Theodore Dreisers An American Tragedy and Sister Carrie :: essays research papers

Money Makes the Man in Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy and Sister Carrie Through the social criticism of Theodore Dreiser, the plight of the poor is compared against the actions of the rich. In both An American Tragedy and Sister Carrie Dreiser presents characters who are driven â€Å"by ignorance and in ability to withstand the pressures of the shallow American yearning for money, success, fashion -- dreams about which Dreiser himself was indeed an authority† (W.A. Swanberg 254). Throughout his career, Dreiser wrote for a variety of periodicals in order to earn enough money to support himself. His success there lead him to write novels, which in turn guided his path to fame and fortune.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mirroring the life and ambition of Dreiser, the characters in An American Tragedy and Sister Carrie demonstrate the same goals and hopes for their lives. Like Dreiser, both Clyde and Carrie came from modest roots. In American society at the turn of the century, however, it is money that ultimately makes the man. As a result, both characters spend their lives working their way into this mold, even at the cost of compromising themselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Within the book An American Tragedy, a poor boy is working his way up to become known. In his society, a name is known for the amount of money its holder makes. His actions in and out of work reflect what his social life of popularity will become. He strives for richness and a life of prosperity, but it is not always what he wants. His choices with love have to be that of wealth and success or he is dishonored.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This character, Clyde, takes a series of miscellaneous jobs to help him succeed. His first high paying job was as a bell hop in a hotel frequented by the rich. From there he went on to work at the shirt factory owned by his extremely wealthy uncle, Uncle Griffiths. Beginning in the wash rooms, Clyde eventually worked his way into a managerial position keeping tab of the payroll. While at the shirt collar factory Clyde engages in a relationship with Roberta, one of the workers under his charge. Clyde then falls in love with Sondra, a woman of the upper class. Not long after, he discovers that Roberta is pregnant. Rather than jeopardize his own rise into the upper class, Clyde must find a way to get rid of Roberta. His only thoughts are that of murder, but he lacks the courage to do it himself.

A Very Filipino Way Of Doing Business Essay

Whenever I go to the local market with the Asawa, I love to wander around the meat and fish section. I love the squalor and the flies and the noise and total lack of any lip service being paid to basic hygiene regulations. It is so Filipino! I have my Suki for meat and another for chicken and one I go to for fish and seafoods. The Asawa has her own for vegetables, fruit and dry goods, spread around the market. A suki, for the uninitiated, is a regular provider of whatever it is you are buying. I think to be technically correct, you as the customer are actually the suki, but in typically Filipino fashion the word is used in either direction and you call the store you go to regularly your suki! We have a suki for bottled water. Our first suki would always deliver in the morning when we were out, despite having been told numerous times we wouldn’t be there to take the gallons (those large bottles of water usually seen in the office back home but commonplace in every home here) un til after noon. Their insistence we change our routine to match theirs plus the fact it took six weeks to get them to sell us a table top stand for the bottles meant I spat the dummy one day and found a new suki! They realized the error of their ways and tried to regain the business but the damage had been done! Changing your suki is not something you undertake lightly. The very fabric of commercial society here is built upon the relationship between buyer and seller. When you look at any row of Filipino market stalls or shops, you may notice how everybody in a row is selling exactly the same thing. The plastic bucket shops are all over there. The hardware stalls are all over there, the next row is all cloth and old clothes. Not only are all the stalls for one line of merchandise in a row, they all look identical. Every stall has the same goods displayed exactly the same way. As if there is a pattern laid down by law as to how to display those goods! Woe betide you if you do it any other  way or s et up amongst the wrong stalls. The prevailing wisdom appears to be that you increase your chances of making some money if you are where people will go to look for the range of goods you offer. If the hardware stores were to spread themselves around the town then maybe one of them would wither on the vine as few people might find them. By having all of the hardware stores in the one spot, then it is guaranteed that anyone who needs hardware MUST gothere. Brilliant! So why would they shop at this store instead of that one if they all offer the same goods in the same location? The only answer I have ever received for that question has always been the same; because you know the store owner, or are a friend or, they are your SUKI! Personal relationships are very important to Filipinos and without them your business is pretty well doomed to fail. Once you start buying regularly from one store and they take on Suki status then the suki will lose face if you are seen purchasing elsewhere in the same market. Other store owners will know your suki is someone else and they will usually refrain from hassling you. Poaching customers has been known to lead to arguments, fights and even stabbings! You should be able to expect a discount (walay hang yoo) from your suki. Of course over time the actual discount might decrease as both parties become comfortable with the relationship and outright price is no longer as important as the trust displayed and enjoyed between parties. This is a factor of Filipino business that many foreigners never grasp. They expect a good deal right from the beginning, yet what have they done to deserve that favouritism? Anywhere in Asia there is a similar attitude to time. Time being invested to really get to know each other and develop trust and a rapport that will span generations. It is a long term view that we foreigners are coming up against way down the path the other parties involved have been traveling for perhaps centuries! The term interloper comes to mind and that is what we are in many ways. Break that down to the local food market level of commerce and the relationship may take less time to build but the concept remains the same. If you apply the same mindset to more expensive business ventures here then it is easy to develop guidelines. Firstly, don’t expect the best terms right off the bat, give the other guy time to get to know you and like you. Secondly, never show your anger or emotion, it shames you and the other party and achieves nothing worthwhile. Thirdly, if you are being  ripped off, don’t be in too much of a hurry to take your business elsewhere. This goes for the meat suki too. I had one who was putting the old thumb on the scales when weighing my beef tenderloin every Thursday. I knew I was being short changed somehow, yet the challenge was how to turn this around to my advantage as I loved my beef and there was only one other stall that sold it. My solution was to negotiate an extra piece thrown in after the kilo or two was weighed and agreed upon. This let the suki think they were doing me a favour and building rapport while I was actually getting what I was paying for. The end result was they finally caught on and stopped thumbing the scales and I eventually stopped insisting on my extra chunk. They got the message that I knew they were ripping me off, yet nobody lost face and business carried on as usual. In some ways, dealing with your suki is good training for dealing with so much that you will confront in this country. Going head to head will only have you losing time after time. You may think you won, you made your point, you showed them but the reality is Filipinos, like most Asians, take the long term view in many things. There is the short term immediate gratification often exploited by the lesser educated and those who figure they will never have to deal with you again but on the whole the opposite is more often the case. Choose your suki wisely, and then stick with them. Work out your differences in ways other than the typical western yelling and posturing and you are sure to come out a winner in the long term. In the commercial context, suki relationships (market- exchange partnerships) may develop between two people who agree to become regular customer and supplier. In the marketplace, Filipinos will regularly buy from certain specific suppliers who will give them, in return, reduced prices, good quality, and, often, credit. Suki relationships often apply in other contexts as well. For example, regular patrons of restaurants and small neighborhood retail shops and tailoring shops often receive special treatment in return for their patronage. Suki does more than help develop economic exchange relationships. Because trust is such a vital aspect, it creates a platform for personal relationships that can blossom into genuine friendship between individuals. Patron-client bonds also are very much a part of prescribed patterns of appropriate behavior. These may be formed  between tenant farmers and their landlords or between any patron who provides resources and influence in return for the client’s personal services and general support. The reciprocal arrangement typically involves the patron giving a means of earning a living or of help, protection, and influence and the client giving labor and personal favors, ranging from household tasks to political support. These relationships often evolve into ritual kinship ties, as the tenant or worker may ask the landlord to be a child’s godparent. Similarly, when favors are extended, they tend to bind patron and client together in a network of mutual obligation or a long-term interdependency. The word suki is a Filipino term which means â€Å"loyal customer.† This so-called â€Å"market-exchange partnership† can be developed into an agreement where one can be a regular customer and supplier. Contents [hide] * 1 Suki system * 2 Customer satisfaction * 3 Returning favors * 4 Reference * 5 Citation| ————————————————- Suki system The suki system is a system of patronage in which a customer regularly buys their merchandise from a certain client. In the merchandising business, Filipinos often buy from specific suppliers who will provide their customers reduced prices, good quality and credit as well. These factors are the usual components of becoming a â€Å"suki.† The presence of trust and the development of friendship between the two parties is a vital aspect in the establishment of an economic exchange relationship. In some instances, regular patrons of restaurants, small neighborhood retail shops and tailoring shops receive special treatment in return for their patronage. Customer satisfaction Customer satisfaction is essential to the survival of any business, small-scale or large-scale; and retailers know that satisfied customers are loyal customers. Consequently, retailers develop strategies to build relationships that result in customers returning to make more purchases. By responding to customer needs, business owners endeavor to meet or exceed  customer expectations for their product or service. This increases the likelihood of gaining sukis. The quality of after-sales service can also be a crucial factor in influencing any purchasing decision. In the current economic environment, businesses continuously strive not only for customer satisfaction, but for customer delight — that extra bit of added value that may lead to increased customer loyalty. Any extra added value, however, will need to be carefully costed. Returning favors Usually, favors are returned or extended to both patron and clients. For example, this reciprocal arrangement typically involves the patron providing a means of earning a living or help, protection, and influence. The client in turn provides labor and personal favors, ranging from household tasks to political support. These relationships often evolve into ritual kinship ties, as the tenant or worker may ask the landlord to be a child’s godparent. Similarly, when favors are extended, they tend to bind patron and client together in a network of mutual obligation or a long-term interdependency.

Managing Employee Performance Essay

In an effective organization there are key aspects to take under consideration such as, communication, growth and expansion, task completion, supply the fits company’s goals, and contingency plans. These are all vital when developing a profitable organization. Once you have these established it is time to start thinking about managing employee’s performance. The internal evolvement in employees will help the longevity in an organizations success. â€Å"Google figured out how to analyze all their data to come up with a profile of the kind of manager whose team is most successful† (Noe, 2014). Along with all the data Google collected and analyzed there are also five criteria’s for effectiveness of performance managing system. In Googles attempt to excel there are some errors that can arise, but using the five criteria’s Google can make a step closer to enhancing their performance managing process. In order to gain structure in an organization there mu st be principles in place. These principles must meet a standard that can be visualized, observed and come to a conclusion. The concluded information must be in alignment with the goals of the company in order for the company to achieve their perspective goals. At Google, their objective are to find managers whose teams is most successful. There are many different ways to achieve their goal but understanding the criteria for an effective performance manager will better assist them. An effective management performance system has five criteria’s that must be maintained. These principles include fit with strategy, validity, reliability, acceptability, and specific feedback. Before expanding on these principles it is important to know why a performance management system critical to the company. â€Å"An effective performance management process enables managers to evaluate and measure individual performance and optimize productivity† (Importance of Performance, 2014). A fit for strategy is â€Å"a performance management system that should aim at achieving employee behavior and attitudes that support the organizations strategy, goals, and culture† (Noe,2014). At Google their emphasis are to develop better managers. Google has met this criterion by identifying what it is they are trying to achieve and have set up measures  to improve their managers. Validity â€Å"is the extent to which a measurement tool actually measure what is intended to be measured† (Noe,2014). By conducting a survey Google was able to evaluate the managerâ₠¬â„¢s performance levels. This allows them a foundation for analyzing and developing training plans. It is important Google to have reliability as well. What good is it to have a valid testing measure it the result are inconsistent. Reliability is something that Google needs to improve. Google has a valid way of measuring their employee’s skill level but consistency maybe something they lack. Google can use measure such as situational judgment to help improve their manager’s performance. In an article written in the Journal of Applied Psychology it states â€Å"on the basis of 102 coefficients and 10,640 people situational judgment test showed useful levels of validity that were generalizable† (Braverman). Google implementing situational judgment to their testing measures would as met the criterion not only for validity and reliability but also acceptability. Situational judgment is a practical standard of testing and has been proven to work. Google could run into some issues with collecting such data if they are not careful present what is being measured. Understanding that errors can occur will better assist Google in the performance management process. It is important not to be bias well evaluating employees. â€Å"People often tend to five higher evaluation to people they consider similar to themselves. Most of us think of ourselves as effective, so if others are like us they must be effective too. Research has demonstrated that this effect is strong† (Noe, 2014). This could cause discrimination issues and run the risk of the company having law suits and also loosing perspective employees due to bad reputation. To eliminate this factor, raters can be trained on how to avoid errors. Specific feedback is a good tool to in cooperate when dealing with employees. If the employees understand what is expected from them they will be more willing to meet those expectations. Google mangers receive training that is essential to their understanding of what objective the company wants to meet. Google has met most of the criteria for have a successful program in place. In closure, Google’s measurements to their manager’s performance levels have met most of the criteria. Their method for a successful performance manager system is a full proof way on ensuring managers has the ability to grow. This in return brings greater productivity to the company. They have established what they  want and created a survey that outline what a good leader possesses. They measures are valid and their employees understand what is expected of them. Google is still searching for ways to improve their test and situational judgment could greatly complement the techniques they already have in place. This will increase the reliability and escalate their chances on reaching their objective. Reference Braverman, E. P. Use of situational judgment tests to predict job performance: A clarification of the literature.. Journal of Applied Psychology, 730-740. Noe, R. A. (2014). Fundamentals of human resource management (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Performance Review Process & Goal Management Process Best †¦. (n.d.). . Retrieved June 23, 2014, from http://www.successfactors.com/en_us/lp/articles/optimize-performance-management.html

Velazquezs The Toilet of Venus essays

Velazquez's The Toilet of Venus essays One of the most stunning paintings in the National Gallery is The Toilet of Venus, which is also known as The Rokeby Venus because it was part of the Morritt Collection in Rokeby Hall in Yorkshire before being added to the Gallery's permanent collection. There are many spectacular things to note about this painting, beginning with its creator. Painted by Diego Velzquez, it is one of the most note-worthy of his works. Velzquez was the leading painter of the Spanish school. Born in Seville in 1599 his works fall into the Baroque period of art. From the young age of 11, Velzquez acted an apprentice. His earliest teachings were from Francisco de Herrera the elder, whom he soon left for the studio of Pacheco, where he remained for five years. This training is reflected in his works, especially early on, where there is a strong naturalistic quality. After marrying Pacheco's daughter, he moved to Madrid. He remained there under the protection of the cond de Olivares. He soon became a cou rt painter. When famous baroque painter Rubens visited the Spanish court near the end of 1629, Velzquez was influenced to travel to Italy to observe and work. He returned to the Spanish court two years later, and entered into what is considered the second stage of his professional artistic life. Over the next two decades his work was a tribute to the Spanish school. He traveled to Italy for the King, of whom he was a personal friend, purchasing works for the royal collection. He is credited with significantly enriching the collection. This second trip to Italy led to his painting of The Rokeby Venus, his only surviving nude. The Rokeby Venus is first recorded in June 1651 as part of the collection of the Marqus del Carpio, son of the First Minister of Spain. Most likely, the painting was commissioned by the Marqus, and then displayed privately. That fact saved Velzquez from being targe...

Share your perspective on leadership in the workplace and describe how Essay

Share your perspective on leadership in the workplace and describe how it has been shaped by the increasing influence of globalization - Essay Example This paper focuses on identifying few underlying factors that affect leadership methods in the contemporary organizational setup. McShane states, â€Å"Globalization refers to economic, social and cultural connectivity with people in other parts of the world† (p.8). From this perspective, globalization has serious implications for business leaders, especially in multinational organizations. These organizations require diverse workforce as well as diverse leaders that possess awareness of influence of cultural, political and social aspects on business. Globalization has resulted in easier accessibility of technology, information, data and products/services. It has also resulted in stiffer competition among organizations and greater passion of people to achieve more in less time, contrary to the conventional steady growth rate powered by profits and bureaucracy. Leaders in contemporary workplace embody these implications in the form of aggression in their business conduct, growth and aspirations. As a result, evidences of businesses booming and going bust have surfaced in recent past. Secondly, globalization has caused organizational struggle for existence, and sustenance is extremely difficult besides opening up opportunities to expand and develop. These opportunities have in fact caused paradigm shifts of leaders in different parts of the world. For instance, the Chinese managers are becoming increasingly individualistic contrary to their collectivistic culture. The research also reveals lowered commitment of new managers to their traditional values, here Confucianism (Ralston et al, 425). Mindset of future managers is changing rapidly towards embracing global strategies and challenges, which means leaders/managers are adapting to international management styles irrespective of their cultural background (Peng & Shin, 179). Despite leaders’ adjustments to the process of globalization, many businesses continue

Can babies with exclusive breastfeeding for first few months of their Essay

Can babies with exclusive breastfeeding for first few months of their life verses formula fed babies have reduced rate of overeating and obesity later in their life - Essay Example (2007) investigated 35,526 mothers who were mailed questionnaires between 1989 and 2001 who would give the shape of bodies of the study infants at 5 and 10 and their weights at 18 in relation to their heights. According to these researchers, a body mass index, BMI of 25kg/m2 or greater is prove of overweight while that of 30kg/m2 is prove of obesity. Those breastfed for at least six months had 0.94 probability of obesity. Such infants would have leaner bodies at 5 as opposed to those breastfed for less than a week. This association was inconsistent in adolescence and adulthood. Therefore, this study found that breastfed women were leaner than formula fed women in their early years but the results were inconsistent in adulthood. Childhood obesity increases the risk of obesity in adulthood hence the direct correlation with breastfeeding. Breastfeeding for the recommended period should hence be observed. The findings of this study resemble previous studies by other researchers on the direct relationship between breastfeeding and obesity in later lives of infants. The shortcoming of the study was in neglecting other factors such as genetic, multi-factorial or behavioural factors or a result of sedentary lifestyle. It only acknowledged the influence of secular trends on infant feeding. The study was carried on women only hence its failure to prove the consistency of the results on men. Therefore, breastfeeding helps avert obesity in later life of an infant as compared to use of formula-feeding. However, beyond adolescence, there is no significant difference that could be pointed in weight between those who breastfed and formula-fed. Hence, the recommendation for one-year breastfeeding for infants during their early years should be upheld. Michels, K. B., Willet, W. C., Graubard, B. I., Vaidya, R. L., Cantwell, M. M., Sansbury, L. B., & Forman, M. R. (2007). A Longitudinal Study of Infant Feeding and Obesity Throughout Life Course. International Journal of Obesity.