The Sixties Scoop in Canada

life-sustaining friendly stimulate School of kind Work University of Windsor 401 Sunset Avenue Windsor, Ont. Canada N9B 3P4 email emailprotected ca Website http//www. uwindsor. ca/critical brotherly take on/ Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information can be found at http//uwindsor. ca/critical tender clobber The online version of this article can be found at at http//uwindsor. ca/criticalsociablework/the http//uwindsor. ca/critical amicablework/the-sixties-scoop-implications-for-sociable-workers workers-and fond-work- pedagogicsCritical kind Work, 2010 Vol. 11 o. 1 11, Online publication date May 2010 53 Alston-OConnor The sixties trump Implications for affectionate Workers and genial Work Education Critical Social Work 11(1) Emily Alston-OConnor, BSW Abstract This paper examines issues concerning inaugural Nations volumes and the baby bird benefit governance, and their implications for social work today. It explores the mid-si xties lift out to illustrate the devastating impact such policies and utilizes had on key pip-squeakren, families and communities. Cultural genocide is part of this legacy.To de break downr more cultur wholey enamour services, awargonness astir(predicate) and ac noesisment of these mistakes can assist social workers to carry a social justice perspective into their come with primitive clients. As well, implications for social work reading regarding handicraftal cooking, curriculum kernel and course delivery by cardinal faculty members atomic number 18 highlighted The mid-sixties max Implications for Social Workers and Social Work Education Religious leading and the government of Canada have apologized to startle Nations peoples for the abusive experiences they endured in the residential train ystem. However, the closure of the residential schools did non end the attempt to assimilate primeval shaverren into mainstream Anglo-Canadian nightspot through separat ion from their families. A sudden acceleration in child welf ar workers removing Native children from their aboriginal communities coincided with the dismantling of the church firing education system. As the next painful chapter in the history of the closure of Canadas immemorial peoples, the Sixties Scoop quickly evolved into an aggressive utensil for assimilation and cultural genocide.Its legacy has implications for social work make out today. Origins of the Sixties Scoop Governments in the mid 20th century viewed aborigine people as child-like creatures in constant need of the paternal complaint of the government. With guidance, they would little by little abandon their superstitious beliefs and barbaric behaviour and adopt civilization (Titley, 1992, p. 36). segregate day and residential schools had failed to meet the goals of assimilation approximately former students did not embrace the Euro-Canadian identity.The Parliamentary committee examining the Indian Act am ong 1946 and 1948 rejected the existing form _or_ system of government and proposed Critical Social Work, 2010 Vol. 11, zero(prenominal) 1 54 Alston-OConnor instead the integration of young Indians into public schools (Titley, 1992). Con latestly, the Department of Indian in the flesh(predicate) business fabricated agreements with the provinces to take primary responsibility for childrens general welf are within their own provincial agencies (Armitage, 1995). As residential schools became discredited, the child welfare system became the new agent of assimilation and colonization (Johnson, 1983).Returning to their reserves and bands, m any(prenominal) residential school students felt alienated and overwhelmed. Growing up in the residential school system, native Australian children were not given share models to look up to. They were not shown affection nor taught how to love or care for others. They had few tralatitious child-rearing skills from their own parents and relativ es to rely on (Armitage, 1995). This had detrimental effect on the families of survivors of the residential schools for the genesiss of children who followed (Fournier and Crey, 1997).During the era of the Sixties Scoop, Kulusic (2005) suggests that power, privilege and poverty are complexly cerebrate to the disproportionate number of cardinal children who were withdraw from their own communities (p. 26). Unfamiliar with extensive family child-rearing practices and communal values, government social service workers attempted to rescue children from their uncreated families and communities, devastating childrens lives and furthering the destitution of umteen families.Culture and ethnicity were not interpreted into friendliness as it was assumed that the child, being pliable, would take on the heritage and flori socialization of the foster/adopted parents (Armitage, 1995). The forced remotion of children and youth from their Native communities has been coupled with social p roblems such as high suicide rate, sexual exploitation, spunk use and abuse, poverty, low educational achievement and chronic unemployment (Lavell-Harvard and Lavell, 2006, p. 144).Newly designated funds from the federal official to the provincial governments were the primary catalysts for state involvement in the well-being of patriarchal childrenas Ottawa guaranteed payment for each child apprehended (Lavell-Harvard and Lavell, 2006, p. 145). exporting aboriginal children to the United States was common practice. Private American sufferance agencies paying(a) Canadian child welfare services $5,000 to $10,000 per child (LavellHarvard and Lavell, 2006). These agencies rarely went beyond confirming the applicants ability to pay, resulting in minimal covering and monitoring of foster or adoptive parents (Fournier and Crey, 1997).In 1959, only one portion of all children in care were of Native ancestry. By the late mid-sixties, 30 to 40 percent of all legal wards of the state i n Canada were Aboriginal children, even though they formed less than 4 percent of the study population (Fournier and Crey, 1997, p. 83). At the height of the Scoop, one in four experimental condition Indian children were separated from his or her parents for all or part of their childhood for non-status and Metis children, one in three spent part of their childhood as a legal ward of the state (Fournier and Crey, 1997).Social welfare policies allowed government agencies to slide by to remove Aboriginal children from their homes and communities and damage Aboriginal culture and traditions all the musical composition claiming to act in the best interest of the child (Johnson, 1983, p. 24). The permanent removal of thousands of Aboriginal children during the Sixties Scoop laid the foundation for more complex, vitriolic effects on First Nations communities and culture with repercussions extending beyond their tonetimes. Critical Social Work, 2010 Vol. 1, No. 1 55 Alston-OConnor C ultural Genocide and Loss of identity element The loss of their children ca utilize irrevocable mental, emotional and spiritual trauma to persons, families and communities. Indian children were taken away like souvenirs by professionals who were supposed to be helping the totally family (Fournier and Crey, 1997, p. 91). The actions of child welfare workers destabilized traditional First Nations culture, quickly stereotyping Aboriginal women as unfit mothers and living off the land as uncivilized.Welfare agencies habit compriseed a very important role in defining, transmitting and shaping what were seen as legitimate or normal cultural expectations and practices (Ward, 1984, p. 22). The acceptable home criteria reflected a nuclear, middle class heartstyle. Once an Aboriginal child was pose, social agencies did not offer stand to the newly formed families even though question has shown that transracial ad election is more problematic because children lose their cultural heri tage and their authorized identity (Kulusic, 2005).Permanent estrangement from ones roots was inherent in the Sixties Scoop adoption structure. Aboriginal names, like postal cyphers, refer which First Nations their family belongs to (Cuthand, 2007). With legal adoptions, childrens birth family names disappeared as the adoptive surname was issued on all records. Sealing their case files erased any historical family history and made repatriation nearly impossible for the adopted child and their sorrow families. most reserves lost almost an entire generation of their children to the welfare system (Johnson, 1983). umteen children were placed in extreme communities, exported to other provinces or crosswise the US border to the homes of middle class white families (Kulusic, 2005). Scattering children across the continent undermined identification with the close-knit traditional Aboriginal culture and finished its kinship network. The legal rights of Aboriginal children were forg otten. With the erasure of their ancestry, the knowledge of being a treaty Indian child was suppressed. Special privileges available as a result of their Native status were lost through the apprehension and adoption exercise (Kimmelman, 1985).In accordance with treaty rights, one might expect that child welfare agencies would place the child in a culturally subdue environment, focused on healthy development as an Aboriginal child. much(prenominal) considerations were routinely ignored (Kimmelman, 1985). This large-scale removal of Aboriginal children to non-native families throughout the 1960s and 1970s damaged the cultural legacy of all First Nations peoples. The semipermanent implementation and destructive intergenerational impacts of Canadian government policies during the Sixties Scoop are consistent with the United Nations definition for cultural genocide.Article 2 of the 1948 United Nations crowd on the Prevention and Punishment of the abhorrence of Genocide defines genoc ide as, any of the following acts committed with smell to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious host, as such killing members of the host causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring in about its physical destruction in whole or in part imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group and forcibly transferring children of the group to another group (Office of the High Commissioner). Critical Social Work, 2010 Vol. 11, No. 1 56 Alston-OConnor Under the misguided goal of assimilation, Aboriginal children were forcibly relocated to non-Aboriginal communities. Placements with families who could not offer socialization within an Aboriginal textile of traditional knowledge and pride of heritage destroyed one of the most important intergenerational processes for cultural knowledge and continuity. Individual Suffering and the Plight of the Family Many of the legal adoptions throughout the 1960s and 1970s were unsuccessful.Alienated children became runaways, turned to street life for support and experienced an overwhelming thought of lost identity, a sense of social isolation greater than that which they had experienced in the church-run schools (York, 1990, p. 205). Anxiety and culture shock were common after moving from remote, rural areas into suburban settings to live with strangers. Many children had difficulties developing attachments to their new parents, had an inability to connect and were distrustful (York, 1990). Some adults, adopted as children, reported physical, sexual and emotional abuses. Others were even hard-boiled as domestic servants (Fournier and Crey, 1997). shaverren are so highly valued in Aboriginal culture that those without children are considered disadvantaged (Johnson, 1983).Research confirms that Native families who approached child care agencies in search of help for funds to supply food and cheer ended up losing their children Often times they were only offered one option to relinquish custody of the child (Kimmelman, 1985, p. 196). Problems of alcoholism, emotional stress and low selfesteem were compound with the increased formal scrutiny and likelihood that other children would be removed from the family (Johnson, 1983). The actions of the social welfare agencies weakened the traditional family structure, and in doing so, weakened Aboriginal society as a whole (Johnson, 1983, p. 61). Implications for Social Work intrust Today Client Contexts The impact of the Sixties Scoop is multi-layered.Understanding the specific disposition of this colonial oppression of Aboriginal peoples requires current social workers to incorporate a social justice perspective when addressing specific issues with Aboriginal clients. It provides acuteness into how the colonizing process has pressured people to detach from who they are but left them with no essence to alleviate the pres sure (Hart, 2007, p. 27). In our role as counselors, this framework gives us the ability to reject assessment tools that merely label, personalize and pathologize individual look and relate these problems to the larger socio-political reality (Hart, 2007). We are better prepared to site how media stereotypes and social prejudices translate into everyday life for thousands of First Nations people.As Fournier and Crey (1997) note, the current generation is suffering the effects of hundreds of years of colonialist public policies. By situating the clients presenting problem in a societal context, we set the stage to name strategies to offset the impoverishing effects of these social justice issues. As social workers, it is our honest duty to look beyond individual risk constituents and to change societys foundational inequalities and constraints (CASW, 2005). One of the ways to address the power imbalance between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal culture is to incorporate Critical Soc ial Work, 2010 Vol. 11, No. 1 57 Alston-OConnor Indigenous knowledge.Battiste (2002) argues it can only be fully in condition(p) and understood when learned in context, taught through Indigenous instilling methods, including manduction circles, experiential learning, meditation, prayer, ceremonies and story-telling. Thus social workers must(prenominal)(prenominal) decease familiar with and support traditional heal processes. Hart (2007) believes if the helping professions respected Aboriginal perspectives, they would incorporate methodologies which directly address the effects of genocide, colonization and oppression. (p. 31). Native Elders have been harangue about relationships between individuals, families, communities and the world around them for generations. They can serve as role models for cocksure growth and well being (Hart, 2007).Their wisdom and knowledge can contribute support, direction and spiritual resources to aid both individual and incarnate problem sol ving and healing. Social workers must take an prompt role in encouraging direct participation in rituals and ceremonies with First Nations clients. The blessing of an event, attending a sweat lodge or pass to a sharing circle establish oneness within the group and have symbolic importance. Spirituality and connecting with ones roots play a powerful role in building a tender sense of Aboriginal identity and hope. These practices are not part of a theoretical approach designed by academics to help Indigenous Peoples.They are meaningful expressions of Aboriginal culture and need to be recognized as valid approaches within the helping process. Effective social work practice must support the self-determination of clients to choose traditional approaches and must not be limited by textbook theory or policy driven programs to resolve issues (Hart, 2007). Culturally Appropriate put Analysing the impacts of the Sixties Scoop is essential to changing the social realities for Aboriginal pe oples today. Practicing from an anti-oppressive philosophy, our mandate includes identifying stereotyping and over generalizing. Misperceiving traditional practices can have a negative effect on the Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal working relationship.To counteract the colonial mentality of our Anglo-Canadian society, social workers must become knowledgeable about Aboriginal perspectives and how they are reflected in traditional and urban Aboriginal culture. Past personal and generational experiences are important as well as present events that will affect approaching generations (Hart, 2007). Social workers who work with Aboriginal clients must respect and appreciate their worldview. Openness and sensibility to nuances related to culture, education, and ways of communicating are essential skills. Individuals must be self aware and alert to the possibility that the social workers own life experiences will affect the way they view this population (Levin and Herbert, 2004).Positive cu ltural attributes such as intergenerational strength of spirit and collective resilience are qualities to go along and build upon when social workers partner in the journey toward Aboriginal healing and familiarity renewal. The cultural view of the collective is a core Aboriginal belief that affects social work practice. First Nations culture and communities place an revered emphasis on kin and its strengths and meaning. Immediate family often includes extended family members and distant relatives. The community is seen as another extension of the family and needs to be include in any healing process. It is crucial to be aware of this collective belief and its manifestations within the community as it affects the language, the terminology and the focus used by the social Critical Social Work, 2010 Vol. 11, No. 1 58 Alston-OConnor orker with the client and their relatives when discussing issues and communicating about programs and options. Trust issues may be a concern when work ing with First Nations peoples. Research findings by Levin and Herbert (2004) identified reverence and a inadequacy of trust in health care settings overdue to discrimination and stigmatizing actions. They also reported that Aboriginal women, in particular, lacked trust in health care workers, be it doctors or social workers, due to the rawness of workers, lack of communication with patients, cultural insensitivity, and absence of knowledge or agreement of Native healing practices (Levin and Herbert, 2004).Often service providers have inadequate information about the experiences of living in poverty or the needs, perspectives, cultures and traditions of First Nations clients. Mistrust has heavy(a) out of lived experiences such as the Sixties Scoop. Lack of understanding of this influencing factor creates substantial barriers to the establishment of a trust- found relationship between service providers and clients. This lack of trust has implications when trying to develop or i mplement community based initiatives as trust is vital to its success (Levin and Herbert, 2004). Legacy Lessons The destructive effects of the Sixties Scoop have important lessons for social workers today.Past mistakes in equipment casualty of the cultural context of First Nations children in care must not be repeated. Social workers uphold the fundamental child welfare formula that children should not be removed from their families solely on the basis of poverty. However, this core principle has not been equitably applied in provincial child welfare practices towards First Nations parents and children. The overrepresentation of First Nations children in care continues to be placed in nonAboriginal families (MacDonald and MacDonald, 2007). Caucasian families without cultural supports for Aboriginal children in their care may be unaware of how to address issues such as racism, prejudice and loss.As tell by Sinclair (2007) several studies found that a positive parental pose toward s the childs ethnic group, as well as several(prenominal) form of social involvement with that ethnic group in the familys life is significantly correlated with a childs positive adjustment and positive sense of identity (p. 70). While pride in the childs Aboriginal heritage can be advance when specific cultural involvement plans are in place, many agencies and communities do not have the personnel to share these traditions and values. In some regions, cultural identity considerations have led to the development of policies that prioritize placement with extended family members or with foster care providers within the same community when children are removed from their parental home (McKenzie and Morrissette, 2003).The ongoing development of culturally appropriate child welfare services needs to include provisions for personal involvement with Aboriginal heritage languages, cultural traditions and values if apprehended children are to avoid the alienation and identity loss experie nced by Aboriginal children from the Sixties Scoop. Professional Training It is clear that the social work profession and the Schools of Social Work have not been neutral in the education and training that produced past social workers (MacDonald and MacDonald, 2007). Social workers Euro-centric assumptions sanctioned the destructive role of child welfare agencies in relationship to Aboriginal culture. The governments assimilation goals Critical Social Work, 2010 Vol. 11, No. 1 59 Alston-OConnor for First Nations peoples were congruent with the professional criteria for the best interests of the child during the Sixties Scoop.MacDonald and MacDonald (2007) note that social work education programs today play a key role within the colonizing mentality of child welfare agencies. Through a social justice lens, the Schools of Social Work need to examine their role in the colonial processes that continue to impact on First Nations people in this country (MacDonald and MacDonald, 2007, p 43 ). Social workers can be pro-active in vocation for changes in their professional faculties. It is important to consider the method in which social work students are receiving their education. Tensions and stereotypes must be discussed openly. While the Sixties Scoop may be a potential factor in many of our clients lives, it is also one in many of our social work students lives. thither is a need for supports to reflect on the needs of all Aboriginal students including those who know their culture, and those who are new to their culture, as well as those who practice tradition and those who were raised within the church (Clark, Drolet, Arnouse, Walton, Rene Tamburro, & Mathews, 2009, p. 305). Culturally relevant education, training and curriculum development are critical to help inform empowering approaches. The inclusion body of Elders in the field education programs, incorporation of spirituality and ceremony into all classrooms and an emphasis on Aboriginal leaders facilitating these practices can provide deeper insight into the Aboriginal culture and its rich history. In addition to First Nations child welfare agencies and National First Nations organizations, the schools of Social Work need to play an active role in the development of culturally appropriate social work education (MacDonald and MacDonald, 2007).They need to ensure that Aboriginal faculty teach decolonizing practices to all social work students. Recommendations on how to make the curriculum and the Schools of Social Work more reflective of and relevant to First Nations students needs must be implemented. As well, social worker associations need to advocate for future social work graduates to be equipped to partner with the Aboriginal community in their work toward social justice. During the Sixties Scoop, the basic principles of intrinsic gentleman value and the right to self-determination were erased by a government intent on cultural genocide. By forcibly reassigning First Nations chil dren to non-Aboriginal families, kinship affiliations were obliterated.Its multi-generational legacy of grief and loss in relation to family, identity, culture, heritage and community deeply is still being felt today. As agents of child apprehension, social workers must examine their role in this tragedy and in the colonization of Aboriginal peoples. A commitment to implementing culturally relevant social work practice with First Nations clients is essential for the profession. We have the opportunity to critically evaluate current issues and to partner with members of the Aboriginal community in identifying best practices to challenge the innumerous of social, political and personal issues that resulted from the Sixties Scoop.As progressive agents for social justice, it is one of our responsibilities to create changes to ensure that Aboriginal peoples and their communities have the appropriate resources to flourish and grow. 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